Domina Tempora

In his Argonautica, ancient Greek author Apollonius of Rhodes gives us a rather romantic introduction of Medea as a young woman desperately in love. Unfortunately, this introduction quickly takes on a sinister turn and casts Medea as one of the most famous and controversial figures in Greek mythology.

To understand how this happened, it is helpful to look at the ancient women who, over time, have been relegated to the role of “helper maidens” in ancient heroic stories. A helper-maiden is typically personified as a young woman who, usually out of love, helps a hero in his quest. One of them is Ariadne. Ariadne is a princess and daughter of King Minos of Crete. Her father ordered the creation of a labyrinth. In the the center of this maze is the Minotaur, Ariadne’s half-brother. Ariadne falls in love with the young hero Theseus, who is due to enter the maze. Before Theseus enters the maze, Ariadne gives him a ball of string to help him find his way out.

Ariadne and Theseus by Jean Baptiste Regnault (1754 – 1829) Musee des Beaux-Arts, Rouen (Public Domain)

After Theseus kills the Minotaur and escapes from the maze, he takes Ariadne as his bride and they sail back to his home. However, before reaching their destination, they stop at an island. Fatigued, Aridane falls asleep and then left on the island by Theseus. Thus the powerful woman who helped the hero and sacrificed her own family is diminished to a state of powerlessness.

The story of Medea, another “helper maiden”, follows in similar vein, but with starkly different ending.

The Exile of Medea

Medea’s role began after the hero Jason came to Colchis to claim his inheritance, the throne of Iolcus by retrieving the Golden Fleece to fulfill the condition tasked by his uncle King Pelias. Medea fell in love with the handsome hero and promised to help him on the condition that Jason would marry her and take her with him on his adventures. Aeëtes, the king of Colchis as well as Medea’s father, promised to give Jason the fleece if Jason could perform certain tasks. Jason’s first task was to plough a field with fire-breathing oxen that he had to yoke himself. To help him with this task, Medea gave him an ointment to put on himself and his weapons to protect them from the bulls’ fiery breath.

Jason’s second task was to sow the teeth of a dragon in the field. The dragon’s teeth sprouted into an army of warriors. This came as no surprise to Jason as Medea had already warned him about this and advised him to throw a rock into the crowd of warriors. Unable to determine where the rock had come from, the warriors attacked and killed each other.

The Betrothal of Jason and Medea by Biagio d’Antonio (1487) Museé des Arts Décoratifs, Paris (Public Domain)

Jason’s final task was to fight and kill the sleepless dragon that guarded the fleece. It was, again, Medea who came to Jason’s rescue by putting the beast to sleep with her narcotic herbs. Jason took the fleece and sailed away with Medea. As they fled, Medea distracted her father by killing her own brother Absyrtus, effectively severing her ties to her own family and putting herself in exile for the man she loved. It is perhaps difficult for us in this modern age to conceive of how horrible exile would have been for the ancient Greeks. As a person’s city-state was their home and protector, to wander without friends or shelter was considered a fate worse than death. For the sake of her husband, Medea made herself an exile, sending herself far from home without family or friends to protect her.

When the Argo reached the island of Crete, they found that the island was guarded by Talus. Talus was a giant bronze automaton who circled the island three times a day to protect Crete from pirates and invaders. Here the accounts differ slightly as, according to Apollodorus, Talus was slain when Medea drove him mad with drugs and deceived him that she would make him immortal. However, in the Argonautica, Medea hypnotized him from the Argo, driving him mad so that he dislodged the nail fastened in his body and bled to death. It was only after Talus had died that the Argo was able to land.

Jason Taming the Bulls of Aeëtes by Jean-François de Troy (1742) (Public Domain)

Celebrating his return with the Golden Fleece to Iolcus, Jason noted that his father Aeson was too unwell to participate in the celebrations. Medea withdrew the blood from Aeson’s body, infused it with herbs and returned it to his veins to invigorate him. King Pelias’ daughters saw this and wanted the same cure for their father. However, Pelias still refused to give up his throne for Jason. Medea told the girls that she could turn an old ram into a young ram by cutting up the old ram into pieces and boiling it in a cauldron full of magic herbs. After Medea cut up the old ram and put it in the herb, a young ram jumped out of the pot. Excited, Pelias’ daughters then cut their father into pieces and threw him into a pot, thus killing their own father. Having killed Pelias, Jason and Medea fled to Corinth where they married and stayed together for the next ten years with their children. In her advocacy of her husband’s interest, Medea had also made Jason exiled in Corinth as, because of her actions in Iolcus, Jason could no longer return home. Jason, the “hero” of the Golden Fleece is now a wanderer.

After years of marriage, and perhaps frustrated by the lack of security in their exile, Jason abandoned Medea for the king’s daughter Glauce. Accounts of what happened next vary. According to the poet Eumelus, Medea killed her children by accident. However, the poet Creophylus blamed the children’s murders on the citizens of Corinth. In Euripides’ version, Medea took her revenge by sending Glauce a dress and golden coronet covered in poison. This resulted in the deaths of both the princess and the king, Creon, when he tried to save his daughter. Medea then continued her revenge by murdering two of her children herself. Afterward, Medea left Corinth and flew to Athens in a golden chariot driven by dragons. Despite the different variations, it is Euripides’ addition of Medea’s filicide which would go on to become the standard for later writers.

Medea throwing her brother into the sea in The Golden Fleece by Herbert James Draper, (1904) Bradford Museum (Public Domain)

The Divine Poison and the Trouble with being a Woman Favored by the Gods

In every version of her story, Medea’s method of achieving her ends involved a lot of cunning and trickery, However, one of her favoured method which shows us her special status was her use of drugs. Providing sleep and cure was considered a divine privilege. In fact, the concepts of sleep, death and rebirth were closely associated in ancient classical thought.

In Homer’s Iliad, Hera put Zeus to sleep to allow her to help the Greeks in the Trojan War. Apart from his ability to heal, Apollo also had hypnotic powers and the ability to induce death through plagues. In his temple in Delphi, Apollo temporarily alleviated Orestes, who killed his mother Clytaimnestra to avenge the death of his father Agamemnon, from the menace of the Erinnyes by making them sleep.

The special ability to make people sleep was given from the gods to several mortals as a gift. The most skilled out of these favoured mortals was Medea. In his play, Euripides emphasizes Medea’s skills, cunning and cleverness. However, he also argues that it was these admirable traits which caused suffering for Medea herself. Aristotle considered the clever woman so distasteful that she is a subject unfit for drama. Aristotle’s statement reflects the typically ancient Greek attitudes. Euripides linked Medea’s cleverness to the theme of pride and of a woman’s position in the ancient Greek society. In Euripides’ play, Medea herself tells Creon that it is better to be born stupid as men despise clever women. Another difficulty that Medea faced was that, as a knowledgeable woman in the ancient Greek society, Medea had no real outlet for her gifts as her force, intellect and will power all exceeded her station as a woman. Although they have some respect for her, the Greek men often treat her contemptuously because of her gender and her “barbarian” origins. Therefore, Medea occupied a strange position where she was a powerless woman surrounded by powerful people who were much less intelligent and resourceful than herself.

Death of King Creon and his daughter Glauce by Medea by Jean François de Troy. (Public Domain)

Written around 50 AD, Seneca the Younger’s play, Medea, picked up at the end of the myth of Medea when Jason has left her for Galuce. Although most ancient greek and roman plays being with a summary or introduction done by a chorus, in Seneca’s Medea, it is Medea who introduces the story with a monologue, thus cementing her power and control of the narrative. Her long, passionate monologue curses Jason and his new wife. As the story continues, Medea plans for revenge and threatens to destroy the palace of King Creon, father of Glauce. After Creon orders Medea’s exile, Medea begs for mercy and is granted one more day in the city. As Jason refuses to let her take their children in her flight, Medea plans to kill her children. After she poisons a wedding rope that kills Glauce and Creon, Medea murders her children and throws their bodies down on Jason despite his hopeless pleas for her to spare them. The last image of the play is Medea flying away in a dragon pulled chariot while Jason questions the existence of the gods.

Medea, Hecate and Protecting the Family

Medea has a divine heritage. She is the daughter of king Aeëtes of Colchis. Aeëtes was the son of sun god Helios and the Oceanid Perseis, one of the three thousand daughters of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. This makes Aeëtes the brother Perses, Pasipae (the queen of Crete) and Circe (the enchantress renowned for her vast knowledge of potions and herbs).  Medea is known in most stories as a sorceress and is often depicted as a priestess of the goddess Hecate. This relationship is established by Euripides though Medea’s line, “by the mistress I worship… Hecate, dwelling in the inmost recesses of my hearth, no one will bruise and batter my heart and get away with it”. In this play, Medea’s ties to Hecate are seen as symbolic as Hecate is both revered and feared which mirrors Medea’s own virtuous and evil qualities.

Hecate was also one of the main deities worshipped in Athenian households as a protectress and one who bestowed prosperity and blessings on the family. By highlighting her relationship with Hecate, Medea presents an ideal quality of a wife in a true devotion to family and preservation of the oikos. Oikos refers to three related but distinct concepts of the family, the family’s property and the house. As Jason threatened to leave and destroy his household with for a younger, more profitable marriage, Medea did what she could to protect her oikos. Despite the violent and negative stigma associated with both Medea and Hecate, they are known for a drastically different and more agreeable quality – that of protecting the oikos. The idea of protecting the oikos against foreign invasion is a ceremonial specialty of Hecate.

Medea departing on her chariot leaving Jason with the dead children by Carle Van Loo (18th century) (Public Domain)

Although it might seem strange that Euripides’ Medea, who killed her children and escaped on dragons, is in fact the protectress of her family, the idea was not a new concept. Medea is seen throughout Apollonius’ Argonautica as an ideal wife character in Greek culture while retaining direct correlations to Hecate in her willingness to defy the male members of her family and kill anyone who came into Jason’s way. Even in Argonautica, Medea already reinforces the fault in ancient Greek society of male dominance in marriage by demonstrating the equal, if not greater, contribution on the part of the female in securing safety for the family.

Medea’s most famous defiance, the antithesis of the role of the passive innocent victim, and controversial action is undoubtedly the slaying of her children as a result of Jason’s abandonment. As there was nothing that Jason could do to stop her, Medea forced the male figure to be the passive victim and removed herself from the feminine role of motherhood. As virginity and motherhood cannot coexist in one person, one must be eliminated to make way for the other. Medea revokes her duty to motherhood in defiance to the unfair cultural system of the ancient Greeks who gave every rights and advantage to her husband.

Orestes pursued by the Furies by William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1862) (Public Domain)

Medea’s giving of the poisoned clothing to Glauce for her wedding ceremony is similar to Hecate’s creation story as the virgin who would become Hecate is posthumously adorned with the clothing of the goddess Artemis. The popular funerary practice of Hecate also involves bestowing clothing to the dead individual.

Medea’s character parallels that of Hecate again through Hecate’s identity as a foreign goddess in reference to the Great Mother figure in Anatolia. Medea is also known as a foreigner, which the Greeks detest even before the events of Euripides’ Medea. The transition of Medea from her native Colchis to Greek society is similar to Hecate’s in the way that her reception is regarded as a hostile one.

Euripides differed from his contemporaries in making his characters’ tragic fates stem almost entirely from their own flawed natures instead of from the whims of the gods. His depictions of women deserve particular attention. His plays give us a long list of heroines who are fierce, treacherous or adulterous – but they are never passive. Although Euripides has forever ruined Medea’s reputation by his depiction of her murdering her own children to show the difficulties of women who are considered too clever for their own good, we may still thank him for not giving us yet another innocent virgin heroine like Ariadne. Instead, he gives us a real woman with a complex personality who have suffered and become twisted by their suffering.

Jason and Medea by John William Waterhouse (1907) (Public Domain)